Tea at Trianon: The Powhatan Wars

John Wilson Croker on Marie-Antoinette

"We have followed the history of Marie Antoinette with the greatest diligence and scrupulosity. We have lived in those times. We have talked with some of her friends and some of her enemies; we have read, certainly not all, but hundreds of the libels written against her; and we have, in short, examined her life with– if we may be allowed to say so of ourselves– something of the accuracy of contemporaries, the diligence of inquirers, and the impartiality of historians, all combined; and we feel it our duty to declare, in as a solemn a manner as literature admits of, our well-matured opinion that every reproach against the morals of the queen was a gross calumny– that she was, as we have said, one of the purest of human beings."

~from History of the Guillotine by John Wilson Croker, 1844

Edmund Burke on Marie-Antoinette

"It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the queen of France, then dauphiness, at Versailles; and surely there never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she had just begun to move in, glittering like a morning star full of life and splendor and joy. Oh, what a revolution....Little did I dream that I should have lived to see such disasters fall upon her, in a nation of gallant men, in a nation of men of honor and of cavaliers! I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards, to avenge even a look which threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone; that of sophisters, economists, and calculators has succeeded...."

~Edmund Burke, October 1790

Monday, March 22, 2021

The Powhatan Wars

From World History Encyclopedia:

The Anglo-Powhatan Wars (also given as Powhatan Wars) were a series of conflicts between the English colonists of Virginia, North America, and the indigenous people of the Powhatan Confederacy between 1610-1646 CE. The Powhatan Confederacy (also known as the Powhatan Empire) was led by the chief Wahunsenacah (l. c. 1547 - c. 1618 CE) who presided over more than 30 tribes in the region when Jamestown Colony of Virginia was established by the English in 1607 CE. Wahunsenacah (also known as Chief Powhatan) at first thought the English could be valuable allies against Spanish raids and hostile Native American tribes, but relations between the Powhatans and English deteriorated as the colonists demanded more land, especially after 1610 CE when the English began cultivating tobacco.

All three wars were won by the English as they resulted in further loss of land for the Native Americans and greater restrictions placed upon them. Although hostilities broke out before and after the official dates of the wars, the generally accepted dating is:

First Powhatan War: 1610-1614 CE
Second Powhatan War: 1622-1626 CE
Third Powhatan War: 1644-1646 CE

The third war ended when the Powhatan chief, Opchanacanough (l. 1554-1646 CE), who had succeeded Wahunsenacah, was killed after being taken captive and his successor, Necotowance (l. c. 1600-1649 CE), signed a peace treaty which effectively dissolved the Powhatan Confederacy. Necotowance was succeeded by his son, Totopotomoi (l. c. 1615-1656 CE) who ruled only over his own tribe of the Pamunkey and greatly diminished lands. He was succeeded by his wife, Cocacoeske (l. c. 1640-1686 CE) who held even less power and fewer lands, especially after Bacon’s Rebellion of 1676 CE which led to the Treaty of Middle Plantation in 1677 CE and the indigenous people’s loss of almost all of their traditional lands. (Read more.)

Also from World History Encyclopedia:

The Indian Massacre of 1622 CE was an attack on the settlements of the Virginia Colony by the tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy under their leader Opchanacanough (l. 1554-1646 CE) and his brother Opitchapam (d. c. 1630 CE) though credit for its success is always given to Opchanacanough. The attack was carefully planned and carried out with such speed and precision that only one settlement, Jamestown, received warning and was able to prepare a defense. Out of approximately 1,250 English colonists, 347 were killed on 22 March 1622 CE, mostly before noon, and hundreds more would die in the following months from malnutrition, starvation, and disease due to the destruction of their crops as well as further periodic engagements with natives.

The attack was a complete surprise and total military victory for the Powhatan Confederacy. Peace had been established between the colonists and natives since the end of the First Powhatan War in 1614 CE. Natives and colonists partnered in trade, visited each other’s settlements, and natives were often guests in colonist’s homes. Since 1610 CE, however, the colonists had begun to spread out from their initial settlement at Jamestown, taking more and more lands from the Powhatan Confederacy, abusing the people, stealing food, and allowing livestock to destroy crops and desecrate sites sacred to native rituals. Opchanacanough’s attack had three objectives:

Demonstrate the military might of the Powhatan Confederacy
Demoralize the English colonists
Encourage them to pack up and return to their own country

The attack succeeded in the first two objectives but, instead of leaving, the colonists entrenched and fought back in the Second Powhatan War (1622-1626 CE) which they won. Afterwards, trade with certain tribes was discouraged and more land was taken for tobacco plantations. Opchanacanough launched another offensive in 1644 CE, setting off the Third Powhatan War (1644-1646 CE) which ended when he was taken captive and killed.

Following this conflict, the Treaty of 1646 CE dissolved the Powhatan Confederacy and led to the reservation system for Native American tribes in the area. The 1622 CE massacre also influenced Anglo-Native relations elsewhere in the English colonies, contributing to English policies and military campaigns during the Pequot War (1636-1638 CE) and King Philip’s War (1675-1678 CE) in New England and the development of laws concerning Native Americans afterwards. (Read more.)